Case Studies:
P&O Ferries appear to follow the human relations school which is centred around people. Joe Keight, the call centre manager for P&O Ferries claims that he felt it was important for the brand to be known for customer service and brilliant call centre experiences, both for consumers and also within the wider company. This shows that he is interested in ensuring customer as well as employee satisfaction. Employee satisfaction is also gained by Herzberg’s theories of job enrichment, job enlargement and job rotation (which comes under the human relations school. “It’s motivated our staff, gained real commitment to the call centre from the board, and shown us how to talk to our customers better” says Keight. “The feedback from the trainers and the staff has been amazing” claims Keight, showing again that employees are enjoying their work. The human relations school sees organisations as social systems. Keight says that P&O Ferries pride themselves on treating customers as people rather than just calls. The Human relations school focuses on the need to pay attention to the needs and interests of workers.
P&O Ferries also relates to the contingency approach which is concerned with the importance of structure as a significant influence on organisational performance. The Top 50 presented the ideal opportunity to prove the worth and value of the contact centre which and Joe Keight joined the company because he wanted to improve its image. The contingency approach considers the success of the company as important and this obviously relates to its image. As well as the external environment and size being issues with P&O Ferries technology is also vital, as improving phone calls to customers is all part of their programme. “We’ve had so many calls from people around the business - it’s really boosted the profile of the contact centre internally” says Joe Keight. By improving technology and the way they answer phone calls, P&O Ferries has helped to improve their image. P&O Ferries are Europe’s biggest ferry company, however “they do not have the best reputation” admits Keight. Within the travel industry however they are behind leading airline companies.
http://www.top50callcentres.co.uk/pando
Specsavers are another company that use the human relations approach. Head of call centre services at Specsavers, Jonathan George states “We linked the success of the Top 50 to department incentives, with the individual who achieved the best scores during the calling period getting the chance to attend the gala celebration”. Using incentives like this is a fantastic way of motivating employees to work harder (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs). George insists that the Top 50 did a tremendous job of reminding staff of the importance of giving great customer service: “The fact that the hard work they have put into improving quality has been recognised externally has been a huge boost for staff and really pushes them to perform even better”. To further motivate staff, Specsavers have introduced a new reward scheme, rewarding a king and queen of service each month. This is to ensure the quality of service is kept high as employees are tested on the way they engage and talk to customers. All of this involves the organisation as being a very social system (human relations approach).
Like P&O Ferries, Specsavers also use the contingency approach. With the size part of the contingency approach George claims that he wants to help Specsavers become the best call centre. “The fact that we weren’t number one has got us thinking what we can do better and how we can boost our performance”. He admits that being in the top 50, has helped improve the company’s image. “The Top 50 has led others in the business to better regard the value of the call centre to the organisation, and I find it much easier to get support for contact centre projects as a result of participation and success. What’s more, the team uses the Top 50 as a way of attracting staff who want to work for one of the best contact centres in the UK”. With the external environment side of the contingency approach, George says that on a personal level it has helped him improve relations with other call centres. “It’s also helped me build better relationships with other centres and share best practice. I’ve been sharing performance levels with fellow managers and discussing with them what we should be doing differently”. This is further evidence of Specsavers using the contingency approach within its organisation. On the technology side of the contingency approach, Specsavers are always trying to improve, with things like new glasses and better eye tests. “Consistency is incredibly important to us. It really is about quality”. All of these aspects, are part of the contingency approach, and shows that Specsavers focus heavily on this approach as well as the human relations school.
http://www.top50callcentres.co.uk/specsavers
After analysing both P&O Ferries and Specsavers, it appears that both businesses use the human relations school, and the contingency approach within their organisations. However where Specsavers seem more task and job centred, P&O Ferries appear to be more people centred. Both companies show signs of all four approaches (The Classical school, (The Human Relations school, the Contingency Approach and the Systems Approach) however it is the contingency approach and the human relations school which really stand out in both of these businesses. Specsavers uses extremely good benefits and incentives to motivate their employees, like king and queen servicer of the month. P&O Ferries on the other hand try to treat employees and customers alike, all with the same politeness and respect. Specsavers aim to become the number 1 call centre in the UK. P&O Ferries aim to improve their customer service so much so that their reputation precedes them and their company becomes synonymous with excellent customer service.
Scientific Management is an analytical approach to managing activities by optimizing efficiency and productivity through measurement and control. Scientific Management is sometimes called “Taylorism” as it is based on the work by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) who even wrote a book in 1911 called “The Principles of Scientific Management”. His Scientific Management principles basically break down every job or task into smaller, more manageable and easier segments.
Taylor’s 4 principles of Scientific Management are:
1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
2. Scientifically select, train and develop each worker, rather than leaving them to train themselves.
3. Co-operate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed.
4. Divide work almost equally between managers and workers, so that managers apply the scientific management principles to planning the work, and the workers actually complete the tasks.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/
Scientific management improves productivity. Scientific management is essential for any type of business these days. It aims at introducing new and improved methods of production and removal of wastage and inefficiency in undertaking the production activities. As the work is simplified, it significantly reduces the number of disagreements. Close understanding, mutual trust and confidence between the employees and the managers are also given importance in this type of management. This type of management is also beneficial for the workers as they start getting higher salaries than before. Higher salaries will increase employee motivation, and therefore productivity and increased profits. Under scientific management, the work is carried out systematically in accordance with pre-determined plans. Wastage of time is reduced to a minimum and the quality of work is enhanced. Even the recruitment is conducted along scientific lines, ensuring that the correct type of person is chosen for a specific role. Proper working hours followed by rest pauses, adequate lightning, freshening, ensuring proper safety, provision of many other facilities etc. are made certain.
As well as scientific management being very helpful for businesses these days, there are also many disadvantages. Workers are motivated mainly by money. Piece rates (payment by each piece produced) was introduced, and this meant that younger workers were paid more than older ones as they were able to produce more. Although productivity was increased, quality decreased. The workers felt alienated, and they became an add-on to machines. The theory was built around the assumption that man is naturally lazy and motivated by money. The core job dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance and feedback were all missing from the picture of scientific management.
The repetitiveness of work was also increased, therefore increasing boredom, which would in turn decrease employee motivation. It is believed that through the use of scientific management Taylor increased productivity on the shop floor by 200 percent. Taylor’s ideas and thoughts were adopted throughout the world including in France, Russia and Japan. In today’s world scientific management has been merged with other ideas and is used by managers in the form of time and motion studies to eradicate wasted motions, incentive schemes based on performance and hiring the best qualified workers for each job.
http://www.learnmanagement2.com/scientificmanagement.htm
Tuesday, 4 May 2010
Enterprise Week Report
During Enterprise week, I went to two events. The two events I attended were the “Running a Sport Business – The Sporting Landscape” event and the “5%Idea, 95% Effort event. Both events were held in the Gateway Lecture Theatre with the Running a Sport Business event lasting just over an hour, and the 5%idea,95%effort event lasting about 45 minutes. The Running a Sport Business event was all about the sporting landscape. Jonathan Miller, who is the Marketing Director of a business called 110% and who previously worked for the FA was the speaker. He discussed the types of skills and attitudes people would require to be successful. The 5% Idea, 95% Effort event, was presented by Nico, the creator of the business Letterboxchocs, a business which posts chocolates through the door. He talked about how he started his business, and the help he received along the way. He even met Gordon Brown!
During the events, I sat and listened intently to what both speakers were saying and took a fair amount of notes. I feel that both activities were very beneficial to me, as I learned a lot. During the Running a Sport Business event for example, Jonathan spoke about how each and every one of us would need to stand out somehow, as there would be thousands of people competing for just one position in a business. He opened my eyes a bit more as to what I may need to do, other than just work hard and get good grades. I am considering doing volunteering after his talk, something which I would have laughed at in the past, having the attitude of “why should I work if I don’t get paid, as I would be working for no benefit”. I understand now that it would be to my benefit to maybe go and do something along the lines of volunteering as it would help me to stand out and gain better life experience. Nico helped me to understand where I could go for help if I ever thought about starting up a new business. He said that after he went to the UK Trade and Investment he was able to receive a loan of £120,000 to help get him started. He also made me aware that marketing and PR is much better than advertising as advertising is riskier and more expensive.
Personally I feel that the 5% Idea, 95% Effort event was better as it helped me more. The Running a Sport Business event was very much about general skills about standing out and competing with people of similar calibre’s to you. John stated commonly known facts such as needing to have a positive work ethic and attitude to work hard. Most of this I already know, however with the 5% Idea 95% Effort event Nico helped me understand that it is very possible to become successful in a short space of time if you go to the right places. I did not know about the UK Trade and Investment before him. I always thought that advertising was the best way to promote something, however now I know that it is not. I also learned it is very helpful to research other markets, for example abroad, rather than just our home market. By selling internationally, you spread your risks, but also increase them.
I think that the Running a Sport Business event could have gone better if John had had more time to speak, as you could tell he was rushing towards the end and he even went over his time limit. It should also have been more sport related rather than being so generic, and I know that although John had a good sporting background, he could have emphasised more on that side of things. I felt that both John and Nico were excellent speakers, however Nico had a set duration of an hour and a half to speak, and we ended up leaving nearly an hour early. They were both able to keep my rapt attention for the duration of the events which is a compliment to them both, considering that saying that my attention span is poor would be a major understatement. Overall though, I felt that both presentations were very helpful for me and I am glad that I went to them both. Although I found both events extremely helpful, I feel that neither influenced my career aspirations, as neither of them had much to do with accounting. They did however provide me with extra motivation, as there is solid proof that you are able to get rich from virtually nothing.
During the events, I sat and listened intently to what both speakers were saying and took a fair amount of notes. I feel that both activities were very beneficial to me, as I learned a lot. During the Running a Sport Business event for example, Jonathan spoke about how each and every one of us would need to stand out somehow, as there would be thousands of people competing for just one position in a business. He opened my eyes a bit more as to what I may need to do, other than just work hard and get good grades. I am considering doing volunteering after his talk, something which I would have laughed at in the past, having the attitude of “why should I work if I don’t get paid, as I would be working for no benefit”. I understand now that it would be to my benefit to maybe go and do something along the lines of volunteering as it would help me to stand out and gain better life experience. Nico helped me to understand where I could go for help if I ever thought about starting up a new business. He said that after he went to the UK Trade and Investment he was able to receive a loan of £120,000 to help get him started. He also made me aware that marketing and PR is much better than advertising as advertising is riskier and more expensive.
Personally I feel that the 5% Idea, 95% Effort event was better as it helped me more. The Running a Sport Business event was very much about general skills about standing out and competing with people of similar calibre’s to you. John stated commonly known facts such as needing to have a positive work ethic and attitude to work hard. Most of this I already know, however with the 5% Idea 95% Effort event Nico helped me understand that it is very possible to become successful in a short space of time if you go to the right places. I did not know about the UK Trade and Investment before him. I always thought that advertising was the best way to promote something, however now I know that it is not. I also learned it is very helpful to research other markets, for example abroad, rather than just our home market. By selling internationally, you spread your risks, but also increase them.
I think that the Running a Sport Business event could have gone better if John had had more time to speak, as you could tell he was rushing towards the end and he even went over his time limit. It should also have been more sport related rather than being so generic, and I know that although John had a good sporting background, he could have emphasised more on that side of things. I felt that both John and Nico were excellent speakers, however Nico had a set duration of an hour and a half to speak, and we ended up leaving nearly an hour early. They were both able to keep my rapt attention for the duration of the events which is a compliment to them both, considering that saying that my attention span is poor would be a major understatement. Overall though, I felt that both presentations were very helpful for me and I am glad that I went to them both. Although I found both events extremely helpful, I feel that neither influenced my career aspirations, as neither of them had much to do with accounting. They did however provide me with extra motivation, as there is solid proof that you are able to get rich from virtually nothing.
Personality
Personality is defined as the relatively enduring combination of traits which makes an individual unique and at the same time produces consistencies in his or her thought and behaviour. Personality can be thought of as a set of characteristic behaviours, attitudes and general temperament that remain relatively stable and distinguish one individual from another. Personality is that fundamental “thing” that makes us who we are and makes us different from everybody else.
Personality can be divided into two main approaches. These are the Nomothetic Approach and the Idiographic Approach. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos” meaning “law”. Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws or generalisations. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private”. Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to find out what makes each of us unique.
Despite the fact that an important aspect of our uniqueness is our genes (i.e. it comes from biology) the distinction between the nomothetic and the idiographic is often associated with two types of science. These are the natural sciences concerned with discovering laws of nature and the social sciences, concerned with concerned with individual meanings (nurture).
The nomothetic view emphasizes the fact that personal traits have the same psychological meaning in everyone. This view believes that people only differ in the amount of each trait they have. These characteristics are ones that can be identified and measured so this means that they can also be observed and tested. This perspective is especially helpful for managers when they are involved in selecting and training individuals. The nomothetic approaches views environmental and social influences as minimal and personality as mainly inherited characteristics which are resistant to change. It claims that it is possible to measure and guess the ways in which certain personality types would behave given certain circumstances. Being able to predict behaviour is a major aim and outcome of this approach.
The idiographic view on the other hand emphasizes the fact that each and every individual has their own unique structure and that some characteristics and traits are possessed only by one individual. This theory suggests that it is impossible to compare one person with another. This approach also claims that different traits may vary in importance from person to person. It tends to use case studies, bibliographical information, and diaries for information gathering. It insists that managers take into account a “full” understanding of the individual at work. The idiographic perspective regards personality development as a process that is open to change. It claims that people respond to the environment, the people around them and social influences. Social interaction plays a major part in shaping personality. It criticises the nomothetic approach, stating that a person’s personality cannot be revealed simply by superficial questionnaires. (Mullins 2007).
Darwin's theory of evolution led psychologists like William Hamilton, George Williams and many others to the idea of personality evolution. They proposed that like physical organs, your personality is result of natural selection for survival of the fittest. You do as your genes dictate.
They suggest that fear of injury/ death, fear of spiders, fear of heights, shyness, addiction, criminality and sexual orientation are main examples of inheritable behaviours. Steven Pinker (2004) includes religiousness, liberalism and conservativeness in the list. William Paley considers cognitive capabilities, temperaments and cheating behaviours inheritable.
There is however a lot of criticism to this nature approach. There is no single universal behaviour which can be proved evolutionary. Even fear of death, that seems natural to all, cannot be explained by things such as suicides. Research has found that chimpanzees share 95% of our genetic characteristics. However, they don't share even 10% of our behaviours. Even identical twins (with 100% similar genes) behave differently in most circumstances.
It is due to all of these reasons that I feel the nurture approach is the more dominant influence. Although I believe that our personality is influenced by nature and genes, I believe that nurture and social influences have a more dominant role. As an example, both of my parents both have extremely short tempers and are very impatient. Alternatively, I am a very patient person and do not get angry or upset easily. Therefore this trait of my personality cannot be explained by genes. I believe that the reason I am patient is due to having watched them a lot and not liking their impatience, I choose to be more patient so that I am not like them in that way. Another way social influences have impacted my personality, rather than with genes, is that my mum and most of my family in fact are doctors or nurses. Both of my parents wanted me to become a doctor too; however I found that I was more influenced by my friends mother who is an accountant. The odd thing is that that particular friend of mine does not want to be an accountant but a doctor! This shows that it is not genetic influences (the nature approach) that are the main influence on our personality, but it is social influences (the nurture approach).
After taking the “Big Personality Test” I achieved the following results. There are 5 big personality traits. These are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism.
For Openness, I scored 2 out of 5. This trait is sometimes known as ‘Openness to experience’. People with scores like mine tend to have a less broad range of interests. They usually stick to what they know rather than being overly enthusiastic about trying new things. Generating lots of imaginative ideas is not your biggest strength. It has been suggested that openness is related to a person’s likelihood to hold unusual beliefs. People with low openness like myself are therefore less likely to believe in things such as conspiracy theories.
For Conscientiousness, I scored 2.9 out of 5. Conscientiousness describes how dependable, organised and hard-working a person is likely to be. This may be the reason why, of all the personality traits, Conscientiousness is the most consistent indicator of job success. People with scores like mine can appear disorganised, but tend to be spontaneous and have a good sense of fun. People with low conscientiousness like myself may be well suited to investigative or artistic careers. Some studies have shown that the more conscientious a person is, the more disciplined they are likely to be about exercise and diet (which I guess does not bode well with me!).
For extroversion, I scored 3.9 out of 5. Extroversion is characterised by positive emotions and the tendency to seek out pleasure-stimulating or risk-taking activities. People with scores like mine are often perceived as gregarious, expressive and energetic. I am someone who enjoys socialising and is quick to form new friendships. Personality studies have shown that scoring highly on Extroversion often translates to a natural capacity for leadership. High Extroversion may also indicate a tendency to earn more than those with lower scores, but the reasons for this are as yet apparently unclear. People with high Extroversion are more likely to lead risky lifestyles and take greater risks in pursuit of rewards. Health studies have shown they are more likely to smoke and less likely to get enough sleep than people who score less highly on this trait. I have to say that I disagree with the smoking part of this theory, as after scoring highly on this trait, I do not smoke (and do not intend to either) and cannot say I have very much trouble sleeping.
For Agreeableness, I scored 4.8 out of 5. Agreeableness measures how sympathetic and considerate a person is likely to be. People with scores like mine are likely to find it very easy to get along with other people. I find that I am sensitive to the feelings of others and that people find it easy to warm to me. As a “peoples person”, I find it very comfortable and easy to work in situations that require teamwork.
Finally, for Neuroticism, I scored medium with a score of 2.4 out of 5. In the context of the Big Five personality traits, the term 'Neuroticism' relates to a person’s response to threatening or stressful situations. People with scores like mine are likely to be comparatively level-headed about perceived threats, but I may find myself worrying when faced with uncertainty or unfamiliar situations. Some scientists have suggested that Neuroticism was beneficial in evolutionary terms. Early man may have found it advantageous to live in a population where certain individuals had a high sensitivity to threats to the group's survival. There is evidence to suggest that Neuroticism, when combined with high scores in personality traits such as Conscientiousness, can result in a powerful work ethic and a will to succeed.
Overall I feel that the “big personality” test is very realistic, and I will most certainly recommend people to take it. In fact I have already told both my mother and my brother just how insightful I consider it to be. I found that the results of this questionnaire, match my personality almost perfectly and I have also gained valuable knowledge on areas I am not so good at which I did not in fact know before, for example openness. I considered myself to be a fairly open person however I understand now, after going through these results, that I was wrong and that I can improve on this trait.
Alongside the “big personality” test, I also took the Mind Frames questionnaire. There are 4 mindframes of thought (the internal mindframes) and 4 mindframes of action (the external mindframes). The 4 mindframes of thought are Logic, Insight, order and Sensitivity. The 4 mindframes of action are Proactivity, Charisma, Control and Sociability. The mindframe that receives the highest score is called the "lead" mindframe, because very often it will be the first mindframe I turn to as I deal with the everyday challenges of work and life. Of the 8 mindframes, my lead mindframe is the sociability mindframe. This mindframe is used by me very often and feels so comfortable, natural and effortless that I may use it more than 80% of the time. I will use it first and most often and I will probably stick with it longer. My second highest mindframe was the charisma mindframe. Apparently I use this mindframe often. This mindframe feels comfortable, and I may use it 60% - 80% of the time. Even if I rely on others more, you’ll have no trouble operating in this mode.
Overall I feel that this questionnaire, although not as realistic as the “big personality” test, is still useful to use. The results I received were the ones I expected to get, showing that this questionnaire is just as realistic as the “big personality” test, however unlike with that questionnaire; in this test I did not learn anything new.
http://wilderdom.com/personality/traits/PersonalityTraitsIdiographicNomothetic.html
http://ezinearticles.com/?Nature-VS-Nurture---Theories-of-Personality-in-21st-Century&id=64862
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro06/web1/ttomasic.html
http://genealogy.about.com/cs/geneticgenealogy/a/nature_nurture.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/whatamilike/index.shtml
www.initforlife.com/home/tm.asp
Personality can be divided into two main approaches. These are the Nomothetic Approach and the Idiographic Approach. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos” meaning “law”. Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws or generalisations. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private”. Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to find out what makes each of us unique.
Despite the fact that an important aspect of our uniqueness is our genes (i.e. it comes from biology) the distinction between the nomothetic and the idiographic is often associated with two types of science. These are the natural sciences concerned with discovering laws of nature and the social sciences, concerned with concerned with individual meanings (nurture).
The nomothetic view emphasizes the fact that personal traits have the same psychological meaning in everyone. This view believes that people only differ in the amount of each trait they have. These characteristics are ones that can be identified and measured so this means that they can also be observed and tested. This perspective is especially helpful for managers when they are involved in selecting and training individuals. The nomothetic approaches views environmental and social influences as minimal and personality as mainly inherited characteristics which are resistant to change. It claims that it is possible to measure and guess the ways in which certain personality types would behave given certain circumstances. Being able to predict behaviour is a major aim and outcome of this approach.
The idiographic view on the other hand emphasizes the fact that each and every individual has their own unique structure and that some characteristics and traits are possessed only by one individual. This theory suggests that it is impossible to compare one person with another. This approach also claims that different traits may vary in importance from person to person. It tends to use case studies, bibliographical information, and diaries for information gathering. It insists that managers take into account a “full” understanding of the individual at work. The idiographic perspective regards personality development as a process that is open to change. It claims that people respond to the environment, the people around them and social influences. Social interaction plays a major part in shaping personality. It criticises the nomothetic approach, stating that a person’s personality cannot be revealed simply by superficial questionnaires. (Mullins 2007).
Darwin's theory of evolution led psychologists like William Hamilton, George Williams and many others to the idea of personality evolution. They proposed that like physical organs, your personality is result of natural selection for survival of the fittest. You do as your genes dictate.
They suggest that fear of injury/ death, fear of spiders, fear of heights, shyness, addiction, criminality and sexual orientation are main examples of inheritable behaviours. Steven Pinker (2004) includes religiousness, liberalism and conservativeness in the list. William Paley considers cognitive capabilities, temperaments and cheating behaviours inheritable.
There is however a lot of criticism to this nature approach. There is no single universal behaviour which can be proved evolutionary. Even fear of death, that seems natural to all, cannot be explained by things such as suicides. Research has found that chimpanzees share 95% of our genetic characteristics. However, they don't share even 10% of our behaviours. Even identical twins (with 100% similar genes) behave differently in most circumstances.
It is due to all of these reasons that I feel the nurture approach is the more dominant influence. Although I believe that our personality is influenced by nature and genes, I believe that nurture and social influences have a more dominant role. As an example, both of my parents both have extremely short tempers and are very impatient. Alternatively, I am a very patient person and do not get angry or upset easily. Therefore this trait of my personality cannot be explained by genes. I believe that the reason I am patient is due to having watched them a lot and not liking their impatience, I choose to be more patient so that I am not like them in that way. Another way social influences have impacted my personality, rather than with genes, is that my mum and most of my family in fact are doctors or nurses. Both of my parents wanted me to become a doctor too; however I found that I was more influenced by my friends mother who is an accountant. The odd thing is that that particular friend of mine does not want to be an accountant but a doctor! This shows that it is not genetic influences (the nature approach) that are the main influence on our personality, but it is social influences (the nurture approach).
After taking the “Big Personality Test” I achieved the following results. There are 5 big personality traits. These are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism.
For Openness, I scored 2 out of 5. This trait is sometimes known as ‘Openness to experience’. People with scores like mine tend to have a less broad range of interests. They usually stick to what they know rather than being overly enthusiastic about trying new things. Generating lots of imaginative ideas is not your biggest strength. It has been suggested that openness is related to a person’s likelihood to hold unusual beliefs. People with low openness like myself are therefore less likely to believe in things such as conspiracy theories.
For Conscientiousness, I scored 2.9 out of 5. Conscientiousness describes how dependable, organised and hard-working a person is likely to be. This may be the reason why, of all the personality traits, Conscientiousness is the most consistent indicator of job success. People with scores like mine can appear disorganised, but tend to be spontaneous and have a good sense of fun. People with low conscientiousness like myself may be well suited to investigative or artistic careers. Some studies have shown that the more conscientious a person is, the more disciplined they are likely to be about exercise and diet (which I guess does not bode well with me!).
For extroversion, I scored 3.9 out of 5. Extroversion is characterised by positive emotions and the tendency to seek out pleasure-stimulating or risk-taking activities. People with scores like mine are often perceived as gregarious, expressive and energetic. I am someone who enjoys socialising and is quick to form new friendships. Personality studies have shown that scoring highly on Extroversion often translates to a natural capacity for leadership. High Extroversion may also indicate a tendency to earn more than those with lower scores, but the reasons for this are as yet apparently unclear. People with high Extroversion are more likely to lead risky lifestyles and take greater risks in pursuit of rewards. Health studies have shown they are more likely to smoke and less likely to get enough sleep than people who score less highly on this trait. I have to say that I disagree with the smoking part of this theory, as after scoring highly on this trait, I do not smoke (and do not intend to either) and cannot say I have very much trouble sleeping.
For Agreeableness, I scored 4.8 out of 5. Agreeableness measures how sympathetic and considerate a person is likely to be. People with scores like mine are likely to find it very easy to get along with other people. I find that I am sensitive to the feelings of others and that people find it easy to warm to me. As a “peoples person”, I find it very comfortable and easy to work in situations that require teamwork.
Finally, for Neuroticism, I scored medium with a score of 2.4 out of 5. In the context of the Big Five personality traits, the term 'Neuroticism' relates to a person’s response to threatening or stressful situations. People with scores like mine are likely to be comparatively level-headed about perceived threats, but I may find myself worrying when faced with uncertainty or unfamiliar situations. Some scientists have suggested that Neuroticism was beneficial in evolutionary terms. Early man may have found it advantageous to live in a population where certain individuals had a high sensitivity to threats to the group's survival. There is evidence to suggest that Neuroticism, when combined with high scores in personality traits such as Conscientiousness, can result in a powerful work ethic and a will to succeed.
Overall I feel that the “big personality” test is very realistic, and I will most certainly recommend people to take it. In fact I have already told both my mother and my brother just how insightful I consider it to be. I found that the results of this questionnaire, match my personality almost perfectly and I have also gained valuable knowledge on areas I am not so good at which I did not in fact know before, for example openness. I considered myself to be a fairly open person however I understand now, after going through these results, that I was wrong and that I can improve on this trait.
Alongside the “big personality” test, I also took the Mind Frames questionnaire. There are 4 mindframes of thought (the internal mindframes) and 4 mindframes of action (the external mindframes). The 4 mindframes of thought are Logic, Insight, order and Sensitivity. The 4 mindframes of action are Proactivity, Charisma, Control and Sociability. The mindframe that receives the highest score is called the "lead" mindframe, because very often it will be the first mindframe I turn to as I deal with the everyday challenges of work and life. Of the 8 mindframes, my lead mindframe is the sociability mindframe. This mindframe is used by me very often and feels so comfortable, natural and effortless that I may use it more than 80% of the time. I will use it first and most often and I will probably stick with it longer. My second highest mindframe was the charisma mindframe. Apparently I use this mindframe often. This mindframe feels comfortable, and I may use it 60% - 80% of the time. Even if I rely on others more, you’ll have no trouble operating in this mode.
Overall I feel that this questionnaire, although not as realistic as the “big personality” test, is still useful to use. The results I received were the ones I expected to get, showing that this questionnaire is just as realistic as the “big personality” test, however unlike with that questionnaire; in this test I did not learn anything new.
http://wilderdom.com/personality/traits/PersonalityTraitsIdiographicNomothetic.html
http://ezinearticles.com/?Nature-VS-Nurture---Theories-of-Personality-in-21st-Century&id=64862
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro06/web1/ttomasic.html
http://genealogy.about.com/cs/geneticgenealogy/a/nature_nurture.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/whatamilike/index.shtml
www.initforlife.com/home/tm.asp
Power and Conflict within Organisations
Definition of Conflict:
Conflict is where two groups or individuals disagree or clash about particular things and they will argue or debate until a solution arises. Usually a conflict arises when people have different views or opinions on a certain subject. Conflict is not necessarily only a bad thing, as in some circumstances in can be used to make changes for the better, for example during World War Two, had we not disagreed with Hitler, we would now be under his rule! Businesses try to minimise conflict as much as possible in order to help maintain a friendly working environment. Conflict is apparent when at least one party perceives that it exists.
Conflict at school:
During my time in secondary school, I recall a time when conflict arose between me and my team mates as to who should be captain of our school football team. People were unsure as most individuals in the starting eleven wanted to be captain. The issue was resolved in the end because the manager picked me to be captain. If he had not stepped in, the conflict may never have been resolved. I had however suggested that we could have a team vote where none of us could vote for ourselves, and this was a suggestion which was regarded warmly amongst my team mates. It was not however needed, as our manager decided that he wanted me to be captain due to my contribution to the team on and off the field. Being good friends with everyone on our team, meant there was no argument when our manager named me as captain and as he had authority over all of us, his word was law and there could be no disagreement.
Sources of Power:
There are five different sources of power:
· Reward Power
· Coercive Power
· Expert Power
· Legitimate (Position) Power
· Referent Power
Reward power is one way of resolving conflict within an organisation. When an employee performs well, rewards such as a pay rise, or work recognition will keep the employee happy and therefore reduce conflict and also possibly increase motivation. Subordinates comply to a manager’s requests because they expect to benefit. Reward power is more likely to be associated with a democratic style of leadership. An example of reward power would be a manager giving a box of chocolate to an individual who has performed well and completed his/her designated tasks on time. Reward power is basically giving the employee an incentive to work harder and can be used to boost motivation and create friendly competition. Managers who use reward power may find that staff respond positively and are willing to offer ideas and suggestions as well as taking on more roles and responsibilities.
http://www.simonstapleton.com/wordpress/2007/12/17/the-five-sources-of-a-leader%E2%80%99s-power-and-how-and-how-not-to-use-them/
Coercive power is the exact opposite of reward power. Instead of using rewards, it uses punishment. Fear is the controlling factor with this source of power. This power is the perceived ability to punish those who do not comply with the ideas and demands set for them An example of a person who has this power would be a school teacher as they have the power to give detention’s to, suspend, and in some cases even expel students who do act badly and against the rules or do not complete set tasks. My first ever detention was given to me simply for forgetting to bring blue socks to football as these were our school colours.
Expert power involves people who have particular expertise, skills and knowledge. Leaders with these attributes have the power to make decisions as subordinates are likely to recognise the leaders’ expertise and be willing to follow their suggestions. The more important and unusual the expertise, the greater the power associated with it. An example of a leader with expert power would be Sir Alex Ferguson, the manager of Manchester United. He is an expert at managing football teams, and former Manchester United players who played for him go to him for advice regularly, e.g. Steve Bruce (manager of Birmingham City) and Mark Hughes (former manager of Manchester City).
Legitimate (Position) power derives from a person’s position or job in an organisation. Legitimate power increases as you move up the hierarchy of an organisation. An example of a person in a position of legitimate power would be the Prime Minister Gordon Brown. Research in multinational companies shows that employees say that legitimate power is the major reason for why they follow their bosses’ orders.
(Chapman.T 2006, Applied Business, Collins, Hammersmith, London)
Referent power derives from a leader’s charisma. People are more likely to follow the lead and listen to instructions from someone they like and admire. Many employees identify with managers who hold referent power, seek their approval and also use them as role models. Subordinates identify with a charismatic leader, and they are more likely to believe in and work hard to achieve the leader’s policies and goals. As employees and subordinates share the same beliefs and goals, it encourages interaction between managers and subordinates. Anyone in a business may have charisma and be well liked, regardless of their status; therefore meaning that referent power can be used at all levels within an organisation. An example of a person with referent power is Cheryl Cole. She is popular and attractive and many people worldwide look up to her and try to be like her.
Strategies to Overcome Conflict at Work:
It is important for an organisation to try and minimise conflict. In order to do this, organisations an organisation must:
· Ensure Human Resources department sets out fair policies, such as equal opportunities and equal pay in order to ensure all employees feel and are treated equally.
· Have disciplinary procedures in place to protect in case of conflict situations, e.g. bullying or fighting.
· Clarifying goals and objectives with employees will help employees avoid misunderstandings and therefore avoid conflict with other employees on the task.
· Have a bonuses and rewards system in place for if employees work hard, behave appropriately and complete the set tasks in order to help increase their motivation and reduce the likelihood of conflict.
· Ensure employees have good communication, are involved in decision making, and are given the chance to talk about any problems or issues they may have. Managers need to involve their staff with decisions that are made so they feel that they are involved. For example, if a manager isn't communicating much with the employees, the employees might begin to dislike their manager and lose motivation. Employees need to feel that they are able to talk about any problems they may have in order to avoid possible future conflict.
Conflict situation:
A conflict I witnessed recently, arose when my best friend’s girlfriend started claiming he no longer cared as much about her as they barely saw each other anymore and he was so busy with work, he did not have much time for phone calls. The situation has not yet been resolved, because there is very little communication between the two. I know for a fact that my friend is very busy with work and has very little free time, however I also know that he has not really explained this to his girlfriend, or told her of how he feels for her, as he has told me. Perhaps if they were able to communicate more during his free time, and he explained to her that he still does care very deeply for her, the conflict will be resolved.
Conclusion:
Conflict in any organisation is inevitable. People just need to try and minimise it as much as possible, and avoid it from getting out of hand. Conflict should be used as something positive as a new view and changes can be brought up to help run organisations more efficiently and effectively. Sometimes Conflict allows an organisation to become a better place to work in because it allows people to speak their minds and put their opinions across in order to clarify a point. However if a conflict is not dealt with quickly, it could lead to a worse situation which will be harder to resolve and therefore could create a bad image for the organisation.
References:
· Management and Organisational Behaviour Mullins (2007) Pearson : Essex
· (Chapman.T 2006, Applied Business, Collins, Hammersmith, London)
Conflict is where two groups or individuals disagree or clash about particular things and they will argue or debate until a solution arises. Usually a conflict arises when people have different views or opinions on a certain subject. Conflict is not necessarily only a bad thing, as in some circumstances in can be used to make changes for the better, for example during World War Two, had we not disagreed with Hitler, we would now be under his rule! Businesses try to minimise conflict as much as possible in order to help maintain a friendly working environment. Conflict is apparent when at least one party perceives that it exists.
Conflict at school:
During my time in secondary school, I recall a time when conflict arose between me and my team mates as to who should be captain of our school football team. People were unsure as most individuals in the starting eleven wanted to be captain. The issue was resolved in the end because the manager picked me to be captain. If he had not stepped in, the conflict may never have been resolved. I had however suggested that we could have a team vote where none of us could vote for ourselves, and this was a suggestion which was regarded warmly amongst my team mates. It was not however needed, as our manager decided that he wanted me to be captain due to my contribution to the team on and off the field. Being good friends with everyone on our team, meant there was no argument when our manager named me as captain and as he had authority over all of us, his word was law and there could be no disagreement.
Sources of Power:
There are five different sources of power:
· Reward Power
· Coercive Power
· Expert Power
· Legitimate (Position) Power
· Referent Power
Reward power is one way of resolving conflict within an organisation. When an employee performs well, rewards such as a pay rise, or work recognition will keep the employee happy and therefore reduce conflict and also possibly increase motivation. Subordinates comply to a manager’s requests because they expect to benefit. Reward power is more likely to be associated with a democratic style of leadership. An example of reward power would be a manager giving a box of chocolate to an individual who has performed well and completed his/her designated tasks on time. Reward power is basically giving the employee an incentive to work harder and can be used to boost motivation and create friendly competition. Managers who use reward power may find that staff respond positively and are willing to offer ideas and suggestions as well as taking on more roles and responsibilities.
http://www.simonstapleton.com/wordpress/2007/12/17/the-five-sources-of-a-leader%E2%80%99s-power-and-how-and-how-not-to-use-them/
Coercive power is the exact opposite of reward power. Instead of using rewards, it uses punishment. Fear is the controlling factor with this source of power. This power is the perceived ability to punish those who do not comply with the ideas and demands set for them An example of a person who has this power would be a school teacher as they have the power to give detention’s to, suspend, and in some cases even expel students who do act badly and against the rules or do not complete set tasks. My first ever detention was given to me simply for forgetting to bring blue socks to football as these were our school colours.
Expert power involves people who have particular expertise, skills and knowledge. Leaders with these attributes have the power to make decisions as subordinates are likely to recognise the leaders’ expertise and be willing to follow their suggestions. The more important and unusual the expertise, the greater the power associated with it. An example of a leader with expert power would be Sir Alex Ferguson, the manager of Manchester United. He is an expert at managing football teams, and former Manchester United players who played for him go to him for advice regularly, e.g. Steve Bruce (manager of Birmingham City) and Mark Hughes (former manager of Manchester City).
Legitimate (Position) power derives from a person’s position or job in an organisation. Legitimate power increases as you move up the hierarchy of an organisation. An example of a person in a position of legitimate power would be the Prime Minister Gordon Brown. Research in multinational companies shows that employees say that legitimate power is the major reason for why they follow their bosses’ orders.
(Chapman.T 2006, Applied Business, Collins, Hammersmith, London)
Referent power derives from a leader’s charisma. People are more likely to follow the lead and listen to instructions from someone they like and admire. Many employees identify with managers who hold referent power, seek their approval and also use them as role models. Subordinates identify with a charismatic leader, and they are more likely to believe in and work hard to achieve the leader’s policies and goals. As employees and subordinates share the same beliefs and goals, it encourages interaction between managers and subordinates. Anyone in a business may have charisma and be well liked, regardless of their status; therefore meaning that referent power can be used at all levels within an organisation. An example of a person with referent power is Cheryl Cole. She is popular and attractive and many people worldwide look up to her and try to be like her.
Strategies to Overcome Conflict at Work:
It is important for an organisation to try and minimise conflict. In order to do this, organisations an organisation must:
· Ensure Human Resources department sets out fair policies, such as equal opportunities and equal pay in order to ensure all employees feel and are treated equally.
· Have disciplinary procedures in place to protect in case of conflict situations, e.g. bullying or fighting.
· Clarifying goals and objectives with employees will help employees avoid misunderstandings and therefore avoid conflict with other employees on the task.
· Have a bonuses and rewards system in place for if employees work hard, behave appropriately and complete the set tasks in order to help increase their motivation and reduce the likelihood of conflict.
· Ensure employees have good communication, are involved in decision making, and are given the chance to talk about any problems or issues they may have. Managers need to involve their staff with decisions that are made so they feel that they are involved. For example, if a manager isn't communicating much with the employees, the employees might begin to dislike their manager and lose motivation. Employees need to feel that they are able to talk about any problems they may have in order to avoid possible future conflict.
Conflict situation:
A conflict I witnessed recently, arose when my best friend’s girlfriend started claiming he no longer cared as much about her as they barely saw each other anymore and he was so busy with work, he did not have much time for phone calls. The situation has not yet been resolved, because there is very little communication between the two. I know for a fact that my friend is very busy with work and has very little free time, however I also know that he has not really explained this to his girlfriend, or told her of how he feels for her, as he has told me. Perhaps if they were able to communicate more during his free time, and he explained to her that he still does care very deeply for her, the conflict will be resolved.
Conclusion:
Conflict in any organisation is inevitable. People just need to try and minimise it as much as possible, and avoid it from getting out of hand. Conflict should be used as something positive as a new view and changes can be brought up to help run organisations more efficiently and effectively. Sometimes Conflict allows an organisation to become a better place to work in because it allows people to speak their minds and put their opinions across in order to clarify a point. However if a conflict is not dealt with quickly, it could lead to a worse situation which will be harder to resolve and therefore could create a bad image for the organisation.
References:
· Management and Organisational Behaviour Mullins (2007) Pearson : Essex
· (Chapman.T 2006, Applied Business, Collins, Hammersmith, London)
Leadership
Management and Leadership are two things which are different however people confuse them as the same thing. For example both are used to manage and organise people. A manager is a person who plans, controls, and co-ordinates people. Managers put into practice policies and achieve results. Leaders on the other hand, guide, communicate, motivate and inspire others. They generate ideas. Leadership is just one of the qualities a good manager may have. Managers are more impersonal and there is not much emotional involvement, whereas leaders have empathy. A manager would employ someone that the business is in need of while a leader may carry out speeches that inspire or motivate a group of people, or by recognising their abilities and achievements.
Blake and Mouton “managerial grid” (1964):
Blake and Mouton's managerial grid (1964) discusses different five managerial styles. This grid is based on two things, (concern for people) and (concern for production). The five types of mangers Blake and Mouton identified are:
· Impoverished manager
· Authoritative manager
· Social manger
· Middle of the road manager
· Team manger
The impoverished manager does just enough work to get by (the bare minimum). He is therefore not committed. If managers follow this style, there is a low chance for that particular company to succeed in the future as this will have a negative effect on the staff working under them and they will be de-motivated as they can see that their manager lacks enthusiasm. This would mean that more and more employees will start to leave or not work as hard, causing a lower level of output and therefore less profits. Consequently the impoverished manager has low concern for production and low concern for people.
The authoritative manager gets the job completed no matter what the cost. He has little interest in staff’s feeling and believes in a “do what you are told to do and that is it” approach. He has high concern for production, but low concern for people.
The social manager is the opposite of the authoritative manager, as he feels that a satisfied workforce will work harder and therefore he tries to ensure that all employees are happy. Social managers tend to have longer lasting employees, as the staff who work for them feel well treated and therefore do not really have much reason to leave. A social manager would rather avoid conflict and “be everyone’s friend”. He has little concern for production, but high concern for people.
The middle of the road manager tries to compromise with staff whilst not allowing too much loss in the quality of work. He tries to go “by the book” and follow rules and regulations whilst trying to keep all parties happy. He had medium concern for production and medium concern for people.
The team manager takes good care of production as well as his employees. Employees will be involved as much as possible so they gain a better understanding of what the company is trying to achieve. By being more involved, they are taking on more responsibility which can help satisfy Maslow’s self-esteem needs. If employees have new ideas of how to improve the business further, their ideas will be taken into consideration. Employees are encouraged to show their initiative. They are more likely to feel as part of the business as well as a part of a team. This will encourage the employees to work harder which will consequently lead to greater output and efficiency. The team manager has concern for production and high concern for people. This is obviously the best type of manager, simply because high concern for production and people will benefit both the business and its employees.
When I worked at Waitrose, I had two main managers. A Section Manager (SM) and an Assistant Section Manager (ASM). They seemed to play “good cop, bad cop” as my SM had a leadership style of middle of the road manager. He wanted me to get all the work done, but only after any issues with me had been sorted out if there were any. If the work had not been completed by the time my shift ended he would have no complaints about me leaving. My ASM however, wanted me to get all the work done, no matter what the cost was. He did not care if my shift was over or if I did not have a break, just as long as all the work was completed. If it was not completed by the time my shift was over I would not be allowed to leave exactly on time. He was most certainly an authoritative manager, and if I am being honest I did not like him very much. I found that I tried to work much harder when my SM was around just because I felt like I wanted to because he was being so nice. With my ASM I became very demotivated and did not bother with trying to work as hard as possible.
Article on Martin Luther King by “Time 100”:
An article from the “Time 100” shows the excellent leadership qualities that Martin Luther King possessed. Martin Luther King was a very well known and popular leader. He was also a very talented and motivational speaker. The article claims that Martin Luther king was a prophet who only wanted justice. He was fighting for people to be judged by their character and not their skin colour. The article praises King for committing to his non-violent protests and it is saying that he did more than just free blacks from segregation. The article claims that if it was not for King there is no way America would be able to call itself the “leader” of the “free world” as it currently does.
http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/king.html
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/martin_luther_king_05.shtml
http://www.famouspeople.co.uk/m/martinlutherking.html
I believe that king is one of the best and most significant leaders the world has ever seen. Having previously studied History in some depth, I know for a fact that Martin Luther King possessed all the natural attributes of a leader. At first he did not want to get involved when Rosa Parks came to him. However after deep thought he realised that America and the World desperately needed guidance and a leader in the fight against segregation. I believe he became that leader. He helped motivate, inspire and guide others. He generated ideas based on non-violent form of protest. Ghandi was his inspiration, and he was also a magnificent leader. King went to visit Ghandi in India and when he came back he said, “Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity”. Going to India to visit Gandhi, therefore deepened his understanding of non-violent protests. I also believe that King using non-violent protests was the best way to show the world exactly what was going on, and how badly treated Blacks were. The best example of this was in Birmingham, Alabama (1963) when the non-violent protestors were set upon by fire truck hoses and police dogs, without any retaliation whatsoever. These actions changed many opinions all over the world forever. As well as using non-violent protests, King also delivered speeches all over the country to help guide and inspire others. He inspired people of all ethnic backgrounds. His most famous “I have a dream” speech was given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington in 1963. President Lincoln was probably the American President who did the most for Civil Rights in History. King knew how to get across to his audience with his speeches. He not only got people’s attention, but also motivated them to do things for civil rights. This is why he was such a successful leader.
Conclusion:
Being a good leader is important as leaders affect everyone around them through what they say and how they act. Leaders have been and will always be role models. As a leader it is important to do the right things in order to help people. The truly great leaders are not in leadership for personal gain. There have been very good leaders in the past who have used their power to create chaos all over the world. A perfect example of this would be Adolf Hitler. He was a fantastic leader. Economically he helped make Germany a power again after World War one and the Treaty of Versailles. He inspired and motivated others around him. However he used his power to do bad things and hurt people. He wanted everyone to feel like he did (by hating Jews). He caused World War Two. Even though he was a role model, he was a bad one and this is why it is important for people to distinguish between a good leader and a bad, but not necessarily poor leader. Even if a leader is a good leader he should only be listened to if he is doing good things. As well as inspiring others, a leader must be confident and Martin Luther King certainly showed this by never backing down, regardless of the number of death threats he received, and the bombing of his house with his wife and children inside it. The key to becoming an effective leader is not to focus on making other people follow you, but on making yourself the kind of person they want to follow. If there isn't good leadership in a business, the business itself will suffer because employees could feel de-motivated which may lead them to quitting the job and consequently production output would suffer. They lead in order to serve other people. Overall, the better the leadership is in a business, the more successful it will be in the future.
Blake and Mouton “managerial grid” (1964):
Blake and Mouton's managerial grid (1964) discusses different five managerial styles. This grid is based on two things, (concern for people) and (concern for production). The five types of mangers Blake and Mouton identified are:
· Impoverished manager
· Authoritative manager
· Social manger
· Middle of the road manager
· Team manger
The impoverished manager does just enough work to get by (the bare minimum). He is therefore not committed. If managers follow this style, there is a low chance for that particular company to succeed in the future as this will have a negative effect on the staff working under them and they will be de-motivated as they can see that their manager lacks enthusiasm. This would mean that more and more employees will start to leave or not work as hard, causing a lower level of output and therefore less profits. Consequently the impoverished manager has low concern for production and low concern for people.
The authoritative manager gets the job completed no matter what the cost. He has little interest in staff’s feeling and believes in a “do what you are told to do and that is it” approach. He has high concern for production, but low concern for people.
The social manager is the opposite of the authoritative manager, as he feels that a satisfied workforce will work harder and therefore he tries to ensure that all employees are happy. Social managers tend to have longer lasting employees, as the staff who work for them feel well treated and therefore do not really have much reason to leave. A social manager would rather avoid conflict and “be everyone’s friend”. He has little concern for production, but high concern for people.
The middle of the road manager tries to compromise with staff whilst not allowing too much loss in the quality of work. He tries to go “by the book” and follow rules and regulations whilst trying to keep all parties happy. He had medium concern for production and medium concern for people.
The team manager takes good care of production as well as his employees. Employees will be involved as much as possible so they gain a better understanding of what the company is trying to achieve. By being more involved, they are taking on more responsibility which can help satisfy Maslow’s self-esteem needs. If employees have new ideas of how to improve the business further, their ideas will be taken into consideration. Employees are encouraged to show their initiative. They are more likely to feel as part of the business as well as a part of a team. This will encourage the employees to work harder which will consequently lead to greater output and efficiency. The team manager has concern for production and high concern for people. This is obviously the best type of manager, simply because high concern for production and people will benefit both the business and its employees.
When I worked at Waitrose, I had two main managers. A Section Manager (SM) and an Assistant Section Manager (ASM). They seemed to play “good cop, bad cop” as my SM had a leadership style of middle of the road manager. He wanted me to get all the work done, but only after any issues with me had been sorted out if there were any. If the work had not been completed by the time my shift ended he would have no complaints about me leaving. My ASM however, wanted me to get all the work done, no matter what the cost was. He did not care if my shift was over or if I did not have a break, just as long as all the work was completed. If it was not completed by the time my shift was over I would not be allowed to leave exactly on time. He was most certainly an authoritative manager, and if I am being honest I did not like him very much. I found that I tried to work much harder when my SM was around just because I felt like I wanted to because he was being so nice. With my ASM I became very demotivated and did not bother with trying to work as hard as possible.
Article on Martin Luther King by “Time 100”:
An article from the “Time 100” shows the excellent leadership qualities that Martin Luther King possessed. Martin Luther King was a very well known and popular leader. He was also a very talented and motivational speaker. The article claims that Martin Luther king was a prophet who only wanted justice. He was fighting for people to be judged by their character and not their skin colour. The article praises King for committing to his non-violent protests and it is saying that he did more than just free blacks from segregation. The article claims that if it was not for King there is no way America would be able to call itself the “leader” of the “free world” as it currently does.
http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/king.html
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/martin_luther_king_05.shtml
http://www.famouspeople.co.uk/m/martinlutherking.html
I believe that king is one of the best and most significant leaders the world has ever seen. Having previously studied History in some depth, I know for a fact that Martin Luther King possessed all the natural attributes of a leader. At first he did not want to get involved when Rosa Parks came to him. However after deep thought he realised that America and the World desperately needed guidance and a leader in the fight against segregation. I believe he became that leader. He helped motivate, inspire and guide others. He generated ideas based on non-violent form of protest. Ghandi was his inspiration, and he was also a magnificent leader. King went to visit Ghandi in India and when he came back he said, “Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity”. Going to India to visit Gandhi, therefore deepened his understanding of non-violent protests. I also believe that King using non-violent protests was the best way to show the world exactly what was going on, and how badly treated Blacks were. The best example of this was in Birmingham, Alabama (1963) when the non-violent protestors were set upon by fire truck hoses and police dogs, without any retaliation whatsoever. These actions changed many opinions all over the world forever. As well as using non-violent protests, King also delivered speeches all over the country to help guide and inspire others. He inspired people of all ethnic backgrounds. His most famous “I have a dream” speech was given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington in 1963. President Lincoln was probably the American President who did the most for Civil Rights in History. King knew how to get across to his audience with his speeches. He not only got people’s attention, but also motivated them to do things for civil rights. This is why he was such a successful leader.
Conclusion:
Being a good leader is important as leaders affect everyone around them through what they say and how they act. Leaders have been and will always be role models. As a leader it is important to do the right things in order to help people. The truly great leaders are not in leadership for personal gain. There have been very good leaders in the past who have used their power to create chaos all over the world. A perfect example of this would be Adolf Hitler. He was a fantastic leader. Economically he helped make Germany a power again after World War one and the Treaty of Versailles. He inspired and motivated others around him. However he used his power to do bad things and hurt people. He wanted everyone to feel like he did (by hating Jews). He caused World War Two. Even though he was a role model, he was a bad one and this is why it is important for people to distinguish between a good leader and a bad, but not necessarily poor leader. Even if a leader is a good leader he should only be listened to if he is doing good things. As well as inspiring others, a leader must be confident and Martin Luther King certainly showed this by never backing down, regardless of the number of death threats he received, and the bombing of his house with his wife and children inside it. The key to becoming an effective leader is not to focus on making other people follow you, but on making yourself the kind of person they want to follow. If there isn't good leadership in a business, the business itself will suffer because employees could feel de-motivated which may lead them to quitting the job and consequently production output would suffer. They lead in order to serve other people. Overall, the better the leadership is in a business, the more successful it will be in the future.
Organisational Culture
The visible aspects of culture in Marks and Spencer are that as soon as you enter the shop, you hear soft, calm music playing in the background. This creates a cosy atmosphere in which people enjoy shopping in. Near the entrance there is a slogan saying 'Quality worth every penny'. This shows that M&S believe their products to be of the highest quality, and customers fell that these products are worth the price. Employees are easily visible as they wear black uniform with green M&S logo. This is useful for customers so that if they need help they can easily find a member of staff. The uniform also shows that M&S employees are all working together as part of one big team, representing the organisation. The layout of M&S enables customers to more easily familiarise themselves with where everything is in the shop. For example, in the food section, the floor is black, and in the clothing section the floor is a creamy white. Also in the food section there is a poster showing Fairtrade which means M&S actively support and promote this. M&S sells Fairtrade products which mean that they are not just about making a big profit. They want to support and enable the producers to get a better deal on their products. Hidden aspects of culture are all the things that take place away from the customers’ eyes to ensure that the business runs smoothly. Teamworking and training are examples of hidden aspects of culture within the organisation. When a customer walks into M&S they seem employees working individually, however they are actually all working as part of a team trying to get the same amount of work done. Training is another good example of one of the hidden aspects of M&S. Customers do not see the employees getting trained, and this is essential in order to ensure that staff have the necessary skills in order to provide a quality service and get the work done as efficiently as possible.
Types of Culture:
Charles Handy (1993) claimed that there are 4 types of culture within an organisation.
· Power Culture
· Role Culture
· Task Culture
· Person Culture
Power culture is when one person has control over everything that goes on within the organisation. There are central powerful figure, very few rules and systems in, fast decisions, and personal communications. An example of this would be Sir Alan Sugar’s organisation, where he is the central powerful figure, and he does not relinquish and control. He makes all of the decisions, like employees’ wages, how much time employees are allowed for their holidays, who gets employed, who is made redundant and what products are sold.
Role culture is based on structure, with more rules to abide by and bureaucracy. Work is decided via rules and regulations. Power is a based on level in a hierarchy, i.e. your job position. For example a manager would have more power than a supervisor. People work to a job description. This means that not just one person has control over the whole business, but a number of people who have important job positions will also have important decisions to make depending on their job role. Examples of organisations which use role culture are supermarkets like Waitrose or M&S. Each member of staff in Waitrose will have a specific job role such as shelf filler or till operator and this role will be given by a person higher up in the hierarchy, e.g. a manager and so delegates the work downwards. Accounting firms also use rule culture.
Task culture is all about teamworking, when people come together to form a team in order to work on a project. This means that people in the teams will have different skills to use in the project. No one has greater position over anyone in this type of culture as people will have different skills to use together in order to get the project completed. The task is key, rather than the individual or rules. Individuals have more freedom and flexibility, where they can get their tasks completed without being told what to do constantly. While doing the tasks, personal power can be released by each person so that the outcome of the project will be even better. London 2012 Olympics adapt task culture as a lot of people are working together in order to get the project completed. After the task is over, they will probably never work together again.
Person culture is the individual person is the focus of the business, and has the authority to make all decisions regarding specific tasks and or activities. The person will be using their own expertise to complete he task. There is no hierarchy, and the organisation only exists to serve the interests of those within it. Examples include barristers, architects, doctors and surgeons. A doctor is his own boss and completes the work at his own pace, without being told what to do. He would have complete control and there would be nobody above him to make decisions or influence him. Even though a doctor may work for a hospital, they don't have a manager or a boss who will be telling him what to do throughout his shift. The doctor will be his own boss. The doctor is the central focus because without him there will be nobody to help treat and cure ill or injured patients.
Problems of trying to classify culture into one of the four different cultures described by Handy (1993):
The main problem of trying to classify culture into one of the four types is that some businesses might have different aspects of different cultures inside the business. For example in Marks and Spencer, the marketing department may have role culture, whereas the finance department may have power culture. This means that if a business has several different cultures in one organisation, it would be very difficult to suggest that the entire organisation has a specific culture. This applies mainly to large businesses that have lots of different departments and operate in different markets. For M&S, it would be the food and clothing markets. Also, some organisations may have a culture that is completely different to each of the four types of culture described by handy. For example, a business may not have one person making all the decisions (power culture), it may not operate in a hierarchical structure (role culture), it may not have a specifically created team in order to complete a certain project (task culture), and no individual would have the authority to make specific decisions (person culture). If an organisation was like this, it would not be possible to group it into one of Handy’s 4 types of organisational culture.
Reasons for why I think Waitrose has a strong culture:
Waitrose is an organisation which demonstrates strong culture. They type of culture it demonstrates is very clearly role culture. I know this is true because I worked there for 2 years. Waitrose treat all their members of staff as a partner of the business, which makes the employees feel more important within the business. I felt like I owned part of the business whilst working there and technically I did as all the profits are shared between the partners. Waitrose believe that all members of staff should be valued as they are looking after the customers who are bringing profit to the business. This is why there is so much focus on customer service within the organisation. The organisation ensures that all partners remain happy by making sure that all the partners’ benefits from the profit and other rewards and benefits that the business offers to them. Before making any important decisions, all partners will get a chance to give their opinions and have their voice (“partnervoice”) heard by the business. Everyone is part of a team at Waitrose, and if one team member is slacking, the rest of the team will have to work even harder to pick up the slack. This therefore helps motivate each and every employee to work even harder, as you do not want to make your friends have to work harder the next day by not completing your set task.
Visual aspects of culture in Waitrose is that they provide the customers with quality customer service and treat them all fairly. Customers may even come back without a receipt and say they bought a product from Waitrose which was not of acceptable quality and Waitrose would then give the customer the product plus money back! Waitrose raise their retail standards by launching new products and services as well as trying out new ideas with the customers. They promote certain products at certain times of they year. For example, juice will go on promotion during the summer. The building itself is very pleasant because the minute you walk in, customers get a friendly vibe from the employees, which will in turn attract the customers more. The service is friendly as well as helpful. When I was working there I always tried my best to constantly smile and give off a happy vibe towards customers, and I also managed to make friends with a lot of the regulars there.
http://www.johnlewispartnership.co.uk/Display.aspx?&MasterId=f7a66235-2266-45d0-92dd-5b61e878eb31&NavigationId=595
Conclusion:
Overall, culture is quite important to a business, as it can help portray their image to customers and give organisations a reputation to stand by. I do not believe that business set out to try and fit into one of the four specific cultures outlined by Handy, however some just naturally do. There will also be some organisations that fit into more than just one of Handy’s four categories. These are more likely to be larger organisations and businesses.
Types of Culture:
Charles Handy (1993) claimed that there are 4 types of culture within an organisation.
· Power Culture
· Role Culture
· Task Culture
· Person Culture
Power culture is when one person has control over everything that goes on within the organisation. There are central powerful figure, very few rules and systems in, fast decisions, and personal communications. An example of this would be Sir Alan Sugar’s organisation, where he is the central powerful figure, and he does not relinquish and control. He makes all of the decisions, like employees’ wages, how much time employees are allowed for their holidays, who gets employed, who is made redundant and what products are sold.
Role culture is based on structure, with more rules to abide by and bureaucracy. Work is decided via rules and regulations. Power is a based on level in a hierarchy, i.e. your job position. For example a manager would have more power than a supervisor. People work to a job description. This means that not just one person has control over the whole business, but a number of people who have important job positions will also have important decisions to make depending on their job role. Examples of organisations which use role culture are supermarkets like Waitrose or M&S. Each member of staff in Waitrose will have a specific job role such as shelf filler or till operator and this role will be given by a person higher up in the hierarchy, e.g. a manager and so delegates the work downwards. Accounting firms also use rule culture.
Task culture is all about teamworking, when people come together to form a team in order to work on a project. This means that people in the teams will have different skills to use in the project. No one has greater position over anyone in this type of culture as people will have different skills to use together in order to get the project completed. The task is key, rather than the individual or rules. Individuals have more freedom and flexibility, where they can get their tasks completed without being told what to do constantly. While doing the tasks, personal power can be released by each person so that the outcome of the project will be even better. London 2012 Olympics adapt task culture as a lot of people are working together in order to get the project completed. After the task is over, they will probably never work together again.
Person culture is the individual person is the focus of the business, and has the authority to make all decisions regarding specific tasks and or activities. The person will be using their own expertise to complete he task. There is no hierarchy, and the organisation only exists to serve the interests of those within it. Examples include barristers, architects, doctors and surgeons. A doctor is his own boss and completes the work at his own pace, without being told what to do. He would have complete control and there would be nobody above him to make decisions or influence him. Even though a doctor may work for a hospital, they don't have a manager or a boss who will be telling him what to do throughout his shift. The doctor will be his own boss. The doctor is the central focus because without him there will be nobody to help treat and cure ill or injured patients.
Problems of trying to classify culture into one of the four different cultures described by Handy (1993):
The main problem of trying to classify culture into one of the four types is that some businesses might have different aspects of different cultures inside the business. For example in Marks and Spencer, the marketing department may have role culture, whereas the finance department may have power culture. This means that if a business has several different cultures in one organisation, it would be very difficult to suggest that the entire organisation has a specific culture. This applies mainly to large businesses that have lots of different departments and operate in different markets. For M&S, it would be the food and clothing markets. Also, some organisations may have a culture that is completely different to each of the four types of culture described by handy. For example, a business may not have one person making all the decisions (power culture), it may not operate in a hierarchical structure (role culture), it may not have a specifically created team in order to complete a certain project (task culture), and no individual would have the authority to make specific decisions (person culture). If an organisation was like this, it would not be possible to group it into one of Handy’s 4 types of organisational culture.
Reasons for why I think Waitrose has a strong culture:
Waitrose is an organisation which demonstrates strong culture. They type of culture it demonstrates is very clearly role culture. I know this is true because I worked there for 2 years. Waitrose treat all their members of staff as a partner of the business, which makes the employees feel more important within the business. I felt like I owned part of the business whilst working there and technically I did as all the profits are shared between the partners. Waitrose believe that all members of staff should be valued as they are looking after the customers who are bringing profit to the business. This is why there is so much focus on customer service within the organisation. The organisation ensures that all partners remain happy by making sure that all the partners’ benefits from the profit and other rewards and benefits that the business offers to them. Before making any important decisions, all partners will get a chance to give their opinions and have their voice (“partnervoice”) heard by the business. Everyone is part of a team at Waitrose, and if one team member is slacking, the rest of the team will have to work even harder to pick up the slack. This therefore helps motivate each and every employee to work even harder, as you do not want to make your friends have to work harder the next day by not completing your set task.
Visual aspects of culture in Waitrose is that they provide the customers with quality customer service and treat them all fairly. Customers may even come back without a receipt and say they bought a product from Waitrose which was not of acceptable quality and Waitrose would then give the customer the product plus money back! Waitrose raise their retail standards by launching new products and services as well as trying out new ideas with the customers. They promote certain products at certain times of they year. For example, juice will go on promotion during the summer. The building itself is very pleasant because the minute you walk in, customers get a friendly vibe from the employees, which will in turn attract the customers more. The service is friendly as well as helpful. When I was working there I always tried my best to constantly smile and give off a happy vibe towards customers, and I also managed to make friends with a lot of the regulars there.
http://www.johnlewispartnership.co.uk/Display.aspx?&MasterId=f7a66235-2266-45d0-92dd-5b61e878eb31&NavigationId=595
Conclusion:
Overall, culture is quite important to a business, as it can help portray their image to customers and give organisations a reputation to stand by. I do not believe that business set out to try and fit into one of the four specific cultures outlined by Handy, however some just naturally do. There will also be some organisations that fit into more than just one of Handy’s four categories. These are more likely to be larger organisations and businesses.
Improving Staff Performance
There are several theories that relate to motivation, and these are categorised as either “Content theories” or “Process theories”. Content Theories tend to focus on what motivates an individual, whereas process theories focus on how these things motivates an individual. Three Examples of content theories are:
· Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
· Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
· Aldefer’s ERG Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is split up into 5 stages of motivational needs and is shown in a pyramid. On the bottom level of the pyramid are the Physiological needs which relate to the basic needs of an individual, such as food, water, shelter and clothing. On the second tier of the pyramid are the Safety needs. These relate to the security of the individual, such as job security, security of family, personal health. On the third tier of the pyramid are the Social needs. These needs relate to family, friends and a feeling of belonging for the individual. The fourth level of the hierarchy are the Self-esteem needs. These needs relate to the individual feeling a sense of achievement, recognition, status in society and confidence. The fifth and final level in Maslow’s hierarchy are the Self-actualisation needs. These needs relate to creativity, and the fulfilment of inner potential.
Herzberg’s two factor theory is split up into Hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are factors that have value to a person and ensure the person is not dissatisfied, such as salary, supervision and work conditions e.g. a clean environment. The motivators are the factors which actually motivate the individual, such as recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth.
Aldefer’s ERG (Existence-Relatedness-Growth) Theory is similar to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, with a few tweaks. Existence refers to our physiological/basic and safety needs, like food and shelter. Relatedness refers to our social and external esteem needs, such as feeling welcome in the workplace. Growth refers to self-actualization and internal esteem needs such as personal fulfilment for example by getting promoted. Like Maslow’s model, Aldefer’s theory is in a hierarchy. Existence needs have propriety over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth needs.
Differences between Aldefer’s and Maslow’s model are that there are less levels in Aldefer’s hierarchy. Aldefer’s theory also shows that more than one need can motivate at the same time, and allows the order of needs to be different for different people. Aldefer also acknowledges that if a higher order need is unfulfilled, a person may move back to a lower level need that appears easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle. The ERG theory is more flexible and can therefore account for a wider range of observed behaviours. For example it can explain the “starving artist” who may place growth needs above relatedness needs.
(erg theory, http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg/
Three examples of process theories are:
· Expectancy Theory
· Equity theory
· Goal Setting Theory
The expectancy theory of motivation was suggested by Victor Vroom. Unlike Maslow and Herzberg, Vroom does not concentrate on needs, but rather focuses on the outcomes. Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the resulting effort used to try and fulfil them, Vroom separates effort, performance, and outcomes.
Vroom believed that individual behaviour is influenced by personal and environmental factors. Individuals make choices/ and decisions about their behaviour and act rationally in the process, trying to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. He also believed that individuals have different needs and drives. What works for one individual may not work for another individual.
(expectancy theory, http://www.arrod.co.uk/archive/concept_vroom.php
Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased output. This can be affected by factors such as time and resources available. Individuals have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of producing. This can be affected by factors such as time and resources available. Instrumentality is the belief that if an individual performs well then a valued outcome will be received. This involves trust, in that the individual believes he/she will receive a reward if he/she works hard. Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For example, if an individual is mainly motivated by money, he/she might not value offers of additional time off and therefore may not work hard.
http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_vroom_expectancy_theory.html
John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. Equity theory focuses on fairness. People expect certain outcomes/rewards in exchange for contribution/effort. Equity theory involves comparisons with the market, organisation, social elements (such as fellow employees) and historical elements such as previous jobs. Motivation is affected by perception of how an individual feels, as they may well compare their own position with a fellow employee and then either get motivated or demotivated. If for example, an individual sees his/her friend working hard and this resulting in the gaining of rewards from the manager, this may then motivate the individual to work harder so that this individual also individual receives these rewards. However if the individual feels/perceives that he/she is working just as hard as a fellow employee, yet the manger is rewarding the fellow employee more than the individual, then individual may feel unfairly treated and therefore become demotivated.
(equity theory, http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm
Dr Edwin Locke was the man who came up with the goal setting theory of motivation. He formed this theory when he reached the conclusion that clear goals and subsequent feedback could motivate employees greatly. Goal theory is about setting yourself goals and working to the best of your ability in order to be able to achieve them. If someone is set a goal then they are more likely to be able to achieve it than someone who hasn't because they know exactly what they are working towards. The goals that are set must follow SMART criteria. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time Consuming. More difficult goals lead to higher performance than easier goals, provided that they are accepted by the individual that is working towards them. SMART goals lead to higher performance than general “do your best” goals.
Feedback is crucial, but also commitment from the individual is vital.
(goal setting theory, http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_87.htm
(goal setting theory, http://ezinearticles.com/?Five-Basics-of-the-Goal-Setting-Theory&id=2469149
The ways in which Marks and Spencer and the John Lewis Partnership motivate their staff:
Marks and Spencer (M&S) developed their benefit package to help attract, motivate and retain the best people in the retail industry. M&S offer the following to help keep their staff motivated:
· Subsidised healthcare.
· Performance related pay rewards.
· Competitive rates of pay (where basic pay is reviewed every year against other retailers in order to remain competitive).
· Employee discount (20%) and family will also receive a discount card. There is no limit to amount of goods that can be bought on the discount card.
· Pension.
· Bonuses.
· Discounts and offers on a wide range of holidays, health club memberships and leisure attractions.
http://corporate.marksandspencer.com/mscareers/rewards_benefits
The John Lewis Partnership (Waitrose and John Lewis) have a massive range of benefits. I know this having previously worked at Waitrose for 2 years and compared with Marks and Spencer, the John Lewis Partnership offers much much more in the way of rewards and benefits. In order to attract, motivate and retain employees, they offer the following benefits:
· Annual bonus. Every year, a proportion of the business’s profits is distributed to Partners as a percentage of their previous year’s earnings. In my first year the bonus was 20% and having only worked there for 2 months I earned nearly £200 pounds as I had done a lot of overtime and had earned nearly £1000 in that time. Imagine what my bonuses would have been if I had continued at that rate for the whole year, or if I was a full time member of staff! Last year however, the bonus was only 12%, meaning I earned considerably less in bonuses.
· Discounts. After three months’ service, all Partners are entitled to a 12% discount on most purchases from John Lewis and Waitrose. In John Lewis this discount rises to 25% after one years’ service.
· Paid holiday. Employees get 22 days of paid holiday a year, rising to 25 days after 3 years of service. There are further long-service increases for most Partners after ten or fifteen years. Management Partners, including graduate trainees, receive five weeks’ holiday from the outset.
· Pension scheme.
· Life assurance.
· Subsidised dining room in most branches.
· Health services.
· Special help in time of need. In urgent cases, partners are offered a grant or a loan.
· Extended leave. Partners who work for 25 years can enjoy a paid sabbatical of up to 6 months.
· Education subsidies. Generous financial support is given to Partners who wish to acquire a new leisure skill or continue their education, e.g. through the Open University or evening classes.
· Health services.
· Ticket subsidies. Ticket subsidies of 50% of the cost of a visit to the theatre, opera or concert hall are available up to a maximum of £60 per year. Partners may also take advantage of corporate membership to bodies such as English Heritage, the Science Museum and the Royal Society of Arts. When I went to Reading Festival 2008, I was able to hand in proof that I went, and I received £60 in cash back.
· Societies.
· Sports Clubs.
· Voluntary benefits and discounted deals. There is a range of benefits available to Partners such as discounted private healthcare and a car purchase scheme, along with a number of one-off deals with hotels, amusement parks etc.
· Holiday and Leisure facilities. The business owns a number of residential clubs which offer subsidised holiday accommodation for Partners with at least three years’ service. These include:
- Ambleside Park in the Lake District.
- Brownsea Castle in Poole Harbour, Dorset.
- The Bala Lake Hotel and Activity Base, Snowdonia National park.
Something which is not mentioned on the John Lewis website is that as Waitrose are the proud sponsors of Reading Football Club, partners are able to receive free or discounted tickets to go and see them (depending on how much the manager likes you)! Another fact which is not mentioned is that partners get paid according to how well they perform (performance related pay), and they receive Annual Reviewals of Pay (ARP’s) to see exactly how well they are performing, and what they can do to improve in order to get their pay grading up.
http://www.jlpjobs.com/experiencedHire/experiencedHire/benefits.htm
The motivation model which the John Lewis Partnership uses:
The John Lewis Partnership (2009) relates more to Maslow's theory because it offers its partners peace of mind about their job. It satisfies physiological needs, as partners receive a wage and uniform ensuring they have clothes and food. It satisfies safety needs, as partners feel secure in their job and there are many strict (and some which I personally see as silly) health and safety regulations in place to ensure that partners remain safe whilst working. Social needs are fulfilled as there are plenty of people to talk to and you are working as part of a team on your section (e.g. none of you can leave until all of the work has been completed). Also what I found pleasant about Waitrose, was that the majority of employees there were also part time and students like myself. It fulfils self-esteem needs, as the managers there give you a large degree of responsibility and recognise when you have done something well. Finally the self-actualization needs are partly fulfilled as when an employee works hard they will receive praise and there are always opportunities for moving up the ladder at Waitrose. There is plenty of training given frequently, which provides opportunities for growth. I was trained on how to provide perfect customer service for example. To completely fulfil these needs, it is up to the individual to work hard and feel this way if he/she reaches the top.
Conclusion:
To conclude, it is obvious that both Marks and Spencer and the John Lewis Partnership have similar methods of motivating their staff. This is probably because they are both retail supermarkets. John Lewis do however offer considerably more than M&S. They clearly both follow motivational theories and constantly have a large employee base showing that their methods of motivating staff are certainly effective.
· Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
· Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
· Aldefer’s ERG Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is split up into 5 stages of motivational needs and is shown in a pyramid. On the bottom level of the pyramid are the Physiological needs which relate to the basic needs of an individual, such as food, water, shelter and clothing. On the second tier of the pyramid are the Safety needs. These relate to the security of the individual, such as job security, security of family, personal health. On the third tier of the pyramid are the Social needs. These needs relate to family, friends and a feeling of belonging for the individual. The fourth level of the hierarchy are the Self-esteem needs. These needs relate to the individual feeling a sense of achievement, recognition, status in society and confidence. The fifth and final level in Maslow’s hierarchy are the Self-actualisation needs. These needs relate to creativity, and the fulfilment of inner potential.
Herzberg’s two factor theory is split up into Hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are factors that have value to a person and ensure the person is not dissatisfied, such as salary, supervision and work conditions e.g. a clean environment. The motivators are the factors which actually motivate the individual, such as recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth.
Aldefer’s ERG (Existence-Relatedness-Growth) Theory is similar to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, with a few tweaks. Existence refers to our physiological/basic and safety needs, like food and shelter. Relatedness refers to our social and external esteem needs, such as feeling welcome in the workplace. Growth refers to self-actualization and internal esteem needs such as personal fulfilment for example by getting promoted. Like Maslow’s model, Aldefer’s theory is in a hierarchy. Existence needs have propriety over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth needs.
Differences between Aldefer’s and Maslow’s model are that there are less levels in Aldefer’s hierarchy. Aldefer’s theory also shows that more than one need can motivate at the same time, and allows the order of needs to be different for different people. Aldefer also acknowledges that if a higher order need is unfulfilled, a person may move back to a lower level need that appears easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle. The ERG theory is more flexible and can therefore account for a wider range of observed behaviours. For example it can explain the “starving artist” who may place growth needs above relatedness needs.
(erg theory, http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg/
Three examples of process theories are:
· Expectancy Theory
· Equity theory
· Goal Setting Theory
The expectancy theory of motivation was suggested by Victor Vroom. Unlike Maslow and Herzberg, Vroom does not concentrate on needs, but rather focuses on the outcomes. Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the resulting effort used to try and fulfil them, Vroom separates effort, performance, and outcomes.
Vroom believed that individual behaviour is influenced by personal and environmental factors. Individuals make choices/ and decisions about their behaviour and act rationally in the process, trying to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. He also believed that individuals have different needs and drives. What works for one individual may not work for another individual.
(expectancy theory, http://www.arrod.co.uk/archive/concept_vroom.php
Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased output. This can be affected by factors such as time and resources available. Individuals have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of producing. This can be affected by factors such as time and resources available. Instrumentality is the belief that if an individual performs well then a valued outcome will be received. This involves trust, in that the individual believes he/she will receive a reward if he/she works hard. Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For example, if an individual is mainly motivated by money, he/she might not value offers of additional time off and therefore may not work hard.
http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_vroom_expectancy_theory.html
John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. Equity theory focuses on fairness. People expect certain outcomes/rewards in exchange for contribution/effort. Equity theory involves comparisons with the market, organisation, social elements (such as fellow employees) and historical elements such as previous jobs. Motivation is affected by perception of how an individual feels, as they may well compare their own position with a fellow employee and then either get motivated or demotivated. If for example, an individual sees his/her friend working hard and this resulting in the gaining of rewards from the manager, this may then motivate the individual to work harder so that this individual also individual receives these rewards. However if the individual feels/perceives that he/she is working just as hard as a fellow employee, yet the manger is rewarding the fellow employee more than the individual, then individual may feel unfairly treated and therefore become demotivated.
(equity theory, http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm
Dr Edwin Locke was the man who came up with the goal setting theory of motivation. He formed this theory when he reached the conclusion that clear goals and subsequent feedback could motivate employees greatly. Goal theory is about setting yourself goals and working to the best of your ability in order to be able to achieve them. If someone is set a goal then they are more likely to be able to achieve it than someone who hasn't because they know exactly what they are working towards. The goals that are set must follow SMART criteria. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time Consuming. More difficult goals lead to higher performance than easier goals, provided that they are accepted by the individual that is working towards them. SMART goals lead to higher performance than general “do your best” goals.
Feedback is crucial, but also commitment from the individual is vital.
(goal setting theory, http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_87.htm
(goal setting theory, http://ezinearticles.com/?Five-Basics-of-the-Goal-Setting-Theory&id=2469149
The ways in which Marks and Spencer and the John Lewis Partnership motivate their staff:
Marks and Spencer (M&S) developed their benefit package to help attract, motivate and retain the best people in the retail industry. M&S offer the following to help keep their staff motivated:
· Subsidised healthcare.
· Performance related pay rewards.
· Competitive rates of pay (where basic pay is reviewed every year against other retailers in order to remain competitive).
· Employee discount (20%) and family will also receive a discount card. There is no limit to amount of goods that can be bought on the discount card.
· Pension.
· Bonuses.
· Discounts and offers on a wide range of holidays, health club memberships and leisure attractions.
http://corporate.marksandspencer.com/mscareers/rewards_benefits
The John Lewis Partnership (Waitrose and John Lewis) have a massive range of benefits. I know this having previously worked at Waitrose for 2 years and compared with Marks and Spencer, the John Lewis Partnership offers much much more in the way of rewards and benefits. In order to attract, motivate and retain employees, they offer the following benefits:
· Annual bonus. Every year, a proportion of the business’s profits is distributed to Partners as a percentage of their previous year’s earnings. In my first year the bonus was 20% and having only worked there for 2 months I earned nearly £200 pounds as I had done a lot of overtime and had earned nearly £1000 in that time. Imagine what my bonuses would have been if I had continued at that rate for the whole year, or if I was a full time member of staff! Last year however, the bonus was only 12%, meaning I earned considerably less in bonuses.
· Discounts. After three months’ service, all Partners are entitled to a 12% discount on most purchases from John Lewis and Waitrose. In John Lewis this discount rises to 25% after one years’ service.
· Paid holiday. Employees get 22 days of paid holiday a year, rising to 25 days after 3 years of service. There are further long-service increases for most Partners after ten or fifteen years. Management Partners, including graduate trainees, receive five weeks’ holiday from the outset.
· Pension scheme.
· Life assurance.
· Subsidised dining room in most branches.
· Health services.
· Special help in time of need. In urgent cases, partners are offered a grant or a loan.
· Extended leave. Partners who work for 25 years can enjoy a paid sabbatical of up to 6 months.
· Education subsidies. Generous financial support is given to Partners who wish to acquire a new leisure skill or continue their education, e.g. through the Open University or evening classes.
· Health services.
· Ticket subsidies. Ticket subsidies of 50% of the cost of a visit to the theatre, opera or concert hall are available up to a maximum of £60 per year. Partners may also take advantage of corporate membership to bodies such as English Heritage, the Science Museum and the Royal Society of Arts. When I went to Reading Festival 2008, I was able to hand in proof that I went, and I received £60 in cash back.
· Societies.
· Sports Clubs.
· Voluntary benefits and discounted deals. There is a range of benefits available to Partners such as discounted private healthcare and a car purchase scheme, along with a number of one-off deals with hotels, amusement parks etc.
· Holiday and Leisure facilities. The business owns a number of residential clubs which offer subsidised holiday accommodation for Partners with at least three years’ service. These include:
- Ambleside Park in the Lake District.
- Brownsea Castle in Poole Harbour, Dorset.
- The Bala Lake Hotel and Activity Base, Snowdonia National park.
Something which is not mentioned on the John Lewis website is that as Waitrose are the proud sponsors of Reading Football Club, partners are able to receive free or discounted tickets to go and see them (depending on how much the manager likes you)! Another fact which is not mentioned is that partners get paid according to how well they perform (performance related pay), and they receive Annual Reviewals of Pay (ARP’s) to see exactly how well they are performing, and what they can do to improve in order to get their pay grading up.
http://www.jlpjobs.com/experiencedHire/experiencedHire/benefits.htm
The motivation model which the John Lewis Partnership uses:
The John Lewis Partnership (2009) relates more to Maslow's theory because it offers its partners peace of mind about their job. It satisfies physiological needs, as partners receive a wage and uniform ensuring they have clothes and food. It satisfies safety needs, as partners feel secure in their job and there are many strict (and some which I personally see as silly) health and safety regulations in place to ensure that partners remain safe whilst working. Social needs are fulfilled as there are plenty of people to talk to and you are working as part of a team on your section (e.g. none of you can leave until all of the work has been completed). Also what I found pleasant about Waitrose, was that the majority of employees there were also part time and students like myself. It fulfils self-esteem needs, as the managers there give you a large degree of responsibility and recognise when you have done something well. Finally the self-actualization needs are partly fulfilled as when an employee works hard they will receive praise and there are always opportunities for moving up the ladder at Waitrose. There is plenty of training given frequently, which provides opportunities for growth. I was trained on how to provide perfect customer service for example. To completely fulfil these needs, it is up to the individual to work hard and feel this way if he/she reaches the top.
Conclusion:
To conclude, it is obvious that both Marks and Spencer and the John Lewis Partnership have similar methods of motivating their staff. This is probably because they are both retail supermarkets. John Lewis do however offer considerably more than M&S. They clearly both follow motivational theories and constantly have a large employee base showing that their methods of motivating staff are certainly effective.
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